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        • [OLD] Cover Ups After the War
      • Philippines' Resistance - Guide >
        • Philippines World War II Timeline
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        • The Hukbalahap
        • Hunter's ROTC
        • Marking's Guerrillas
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        • Establishing Manchukuo
        • The Development of Unit 731
        • Plan Kantokuen and Bacteriological Warfare
        • The Downfall of the Japanese WW2 Era
        • Three Stages of Interrogations
        • Lasting Impacts
      • Marutas of Unit 731 - Guide >
        • How did Ishii Shiro start unit 731?
        • A Beta Testing Site
        • Establishing Pingfan
        • Experiences at the Human Experimentation Complex
        • Vivisection at the Unit 731
        • Anta Testing Grounds
        • Overall Advance from the Laboratory Creations
        • The End of the War
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Tokyo Tribunal and the War Crimes of Unit 731

10/11/2023

2 Comments

 
by Maggie Murray
Picture
​The Tokyo Tribunal (1946 -1948) found 28 Japanese military officers guilty of committing war crimes. While the Tokyo Tribunal is regarded as having prosecuted the most egregious cases, subsequent trials across the United States and other countries worldwide implicated more than 5,000 Japanese war criminals.[1] However, in 1958, all imprisoned Japanese war criminals were released.[2] Not only were most sentences left uncompleted, but the United States covered up certain atrocities, and those involved never faced trial. 
Major Japanese Military leaders were the focus of the Tokyo Tribunal. They were prosecuted for multiple atrocities committed during the war, including crimes against prisoners of war, mass killings, and attacking neutral powers. However, the Tokyo Tribunal ignored Japanese human experimentation and the biological warfare resulting from Unit 731. 


Ishii Shiro was the formal leader of experiments done in Unit 731. In the mid-1920s, Ishii became interested in biological warfare [3] and petitioned for the use of biological warfare by the Japanese military. Although not initially receptive to his ideas, a change of leadership in the 1930s led to the military backing Ishii's biological experiments conducted in Manchuria [4]. It needs to be made clear when Ishii's human experiments began, with some citing as early as 1932.[5] However, with the creation of the 'Water Purification Bureau' (1936) - a cover for the buildings housing the human experiments - experiments were being conducted routinely on a massive scale. [6]


The human experiments included vivisections, testing of chemical weapons, and amputations, among various other gruesome acts. The majority of victims were Chinese, but also included Koreans, Russians, and prisoners of war from the United States and various other countries; the estimated death toll is minimally 10,000 to 12,000 victims.[7]


Ishii Shiro did not act alone. He was replaced as commander by Masaji Kitano in 1942, and thousands of other doctors, military personnel, and nurses helped experiments take place. Following investigations into Unit 731 conducted by the United States (1945-1948) [8], Ishii and the other experimenters were offered immunity in exchange for the results of their experiments.[9] Having escaped indictment in the Tokyo trials, Ishii and other scientists continued on to have successful careers in medicine. Notably, Masaji Kitano was the founder of Japan's first commercial blood bank, known as the 'Green Cross.' There are fewer verifiable details on Ishii Shiro's post-war life, yet Russian sources recorded him to have continued working on Biological Warfare until he died of laryngeal cancer in 1959 [10]. 


Individuals involved in Unit 731 were not the only ones who escaped being prosecuted as war criminals; Emperor Hirohito - who likely knew about Unit 731 experiments, though it is not clear to what extent - was not tried at the Tokyo Tribunal, and it has been argued that this decision combined with limited press coverage distorted the public's perception of Japan's participation in war crimes. [11]


While many escaped prosecution, numerous Japanese war criminals were still prosecuted, imprisoned, and executed in the United States, China, Russia, and elsewhere. The decision to release all Japanese war criminals came at a period of great political importance for both China and the United States. As fears of Communism and the Cold War grew, the United States released Japanese war criminals, hoping to form a closer friendship with Japan. Concurrently, the Chinese Communist Party supported amnesty for Japanese war criminals to demonstrate their benevolence and success of re-education programs. [12]


The lack of repercussions faced by those involved in Unit 731 and subsequent success reflects a greater question about how wartime accountability is evaluated and who receives justice. The United States determined that the potential advance in national security from data from Unit 731 outweighed their desire to prosecute wartime atrocities and seek justice for its victims. Ultimately, the stories of many victims would remain untold and unacknowledged for decades. 




[1] Kirsten Burton, "War Crimes on Trial: The Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials," The National WWII Museum, New Orleans. November 24, 2020. 
[2] Sandra Wilson, "War Criminals in the Post-war World: The Case of Kato Tetsutaro," War in History, no. 1 (2015) 89. 
[3] Harris Sheldon, Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-45, and the American cover-up. (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 18. 
[4] Harris Sheldon, Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-45, and the American cover-up. (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 19-21, 23. 
[5] Harris Sheldon, Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-45, and the American cover-up. (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 30. 
[6] Harris Sheldon, Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-45, and the American cover-up. (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 34. 
[7] Brody et. al., "U.S. Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II." Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, no. 23 (2014): 221.
[8] Harris Sheldon, Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-45, and the American cover-up. (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 189. 
[9] Harris Sheldon, Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-45, and the American cover-up. (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 207. 
[10] Harris Sheldon, Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-45, and the American cover-up. (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 230. 
[11] Kirsten Burton, "War Crimes on Trial: The Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials," The National WWII Museum, New Orleans. November 24, 2020. ​

[12] Barak Kushner,. "The Real Manchurian Candidates: Chinese war criminals in the postwar, prisoners of history." International Journal of Asian Studies, no. 20 (2023) 26-28






Bibliography

Brody, Leonard, Nie, and Weindling. "U.S. Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II." Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, no. 23 (2014): 220-230.

Wilson, Sandra. "War Criminals in the Post-war World: The Case of Kato Tetsutaro." War in History, no. 1 (2015) 87-110. 
Nie, Jing-Bao. "Japanese doctors' experimentation in wartime China." The Lancet, December 2002. 

Kushner, Barak. "The Real Manchurian Candidates: Chinese war criminals in the postwar, prisoners of history." International Journal of Asian Studies, no. 20 (2023) 19-37. 

Sheldon, Harris. Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-45, and the American cover-up. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. 

Fischer, Howard. "Atrocities in Asia: Japan's infamous Unit 731." Hektoen International: a Journal of Medical Humanities. Winter 2021. https://hekint.org/2021/01/07/atrocities-in-asia-japans-infamous-unit-731/#:~:text=The%20unit%20was%20a%20walled,and%20other%20 germ%20warfare%20 laboratories.

Burton, Kristen. "War Crimes on Trial: The Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials." The National WWII Museum, New Orleans. November 24, 2020. 

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2 Comments
Alan Millard
10/19/2024 04:45:41 pm

Great value is released by revealing the truth.

Reply
Daniel E. Long, DDS,MA
3/2/2025 04:01:50 pm

This is a great overview of Unit 731 and your entire website is excellent. Great work!

Reply



Leave a Reply.

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  • Home
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      • Unit 731 - Guide >
        • Background of Biochemical Warfare Development
        • Imperial Japan's Chemical Warfare Development Program
        • Map of Unit 731
        • Personnel of Unit 731
        • Duties of Unit 731
        • Human Experimentation
        • [GRAPHIC] Germ Warfare Attacks
        • Cover Ups After the War
        • [OLD] Cover Ups After the War
      • Philippines' Resistance - Guide >
        • Philippines World War II Timeline
        • The Japanese Invasion & Conquest of the Philippines
        • Bataan Death March
        • Formation of Underground Philippines Resistance
        • Supplies of the Guerrilla Fighters
        • The Hukbalahap
        • Hunter's ROTC
        • Marking's Guerrillas
        • United States Army Forces in the Philippines of Northern Luzon (USAFIP-NL)
        • The Aetas
        • Chinese and Filipino-Chinese Nationalist Guerrilla Units
        • The Female Faces of the Philippine Guerrillas
      • Rising Sun Flag - Guide >
        • History of the Rising Sun Flag
        • Atrocities Committed Under the Flag
        • Rising Sun Flag in Pop Culture
      • Pinay Guerrilleras - Guide >
        • Japanese Occupation of the Philippine Islands: Pinays Answering the Call to Arms
        • The Fierce Heneralas and Kumanders of the Hukbalahap Guerrillas
        • Amazons of the Pacific Theater
        • Filipina American Veterans: Recovering the Extraordinary Feats of the Ordinary Pinays
        • The Legacy of the Asian Women Soldier
      • Fall of Singapore - Guide >
        • Singapore World War II Timeline
        • History of World War II in the Pacific
        • History of Singapore
        • Japan's Conquest in Asia
        • Japan's Invasion of the Malay Peninsula
        • Sook Ching Massacre
        • Double Tenth Incident
        • Social Changes and Challenges in Singapore
        • Voices from Syonan
        • Return to British Rule
      • Three Years and Eight Months - Guide >
        • Hong Kong before WW2
        • Buildup to World War 2
        • The Battle of Hong Kong
        • Life during 3 Years and 8 Months
        • East River Column Guerrilla Fighters
        • Prisoners of War Camps
        • End of Japanese Occupation
        • War Crimes Trials
      • Siamese Sovereignty - Guide >
        • The Land of Smiles
        • The Thai-Japanese Relationship
        • Phibun’s Domestic and International Policies
        • The Free Thai Resistance Movement
        • Post WW2 Aftermath of Thailand
      • The Khabarovsk War Crimes Trial - Guide >
        • Defendants of Khabarovsk War Crime
        • The Japanese Empire and USSR in WW2
        • The Employment of the Bacteriological Weapon in the War
        • Planning of Japan invasion to USSR
      • Unit 731 Cover-up : The Operation Paperclip of the East - Guide >
        • Establishing Manchukuo
        • The Development of Unit 731
        • Plan Kantokuen and Bacteriological Warfare
        • The Downfall of the Japanese WW2 Era
        • Three Stages of Interrogations
        • Lasting Impacts
      • Marutas of Unit 731 - Guide >
        • How did Ishii Shiro start unit 731?
        • A Beta Testing Site
        • Establishing Pingfan
        • Experiences at the Human Experimentation Complex
        • Vivisection at the Unit 731
        • Anta Testing Grounds
        • Overall Advance from the Laboratory Creations
        • The End of the War
      • Prince Konoe Memoir - Guide >
        • Who is Prince Konoe?
        • Preparation to Tripartite Pact
        • Emperor Hirohito and Prince Konoe
        • The End of Prince Konoe
      • Competing Empires in Burma - Guide >
        • What was the China-Burma-India Theater?
        • When did the China-Burma-India Theater Happen?
        • Who Fought in the China-Burma-India Theater?
        • The Second Sino Japanese War
        • Japan in the South
        • Operation U-Go
      • Battle of Shanghai - Guide >
        • The Battle of Shanghai. Background
        • Shanghai Before War
        • The First Battle of Shanghai 1932
        • Battle of Shanghai 1937
        • Aftermath of Battle for Shanghai
      • Ishi Shiro - Guide >
        • History of Biological Weapons and The Young Ishii Shiro
        • Establishment in Manchuria
        • Pingfang District - Harbin
        • Failures and Corruption
        • Post War
      • Taiwan The Israel of the East - Guide >
        • Background of Formosa
        • Industrialization of Japan
        • China During WWII
        • Taiwan under Kuomintang
        • New Taiwanese National Identity
      • Seeking Justice for Biological Warfare Victims of Unit 731 - Guide >
        • Introduction of Wang Xuan
        • Colonel Memorandum
        • The Beginning of Biological Warfare
        • The Bacteriological Warfare on China
        • Victims in Zhejiang’s Testimonies
        • After the War
      • Rice and Revolution - Guide >
        • The French Colonial Period
        • Anti-Colonial Resistance
        • The Rise of the Communist Movement
        • Imperial Japan’s Entry into Indochina
        • The Portents of Famine
        • The Famine (1944-45)
        • Legacy of the 1944-45 Vietnam Famine
      • Clash of Empires - Guide >
        • Japan’s Imperialist Origins
        • Japan’s Competition against the West: Nanshin-ron and Hokushin-ron
        • Japanese Imperialism Through the Lens of French Indochina
        • The U.S.-Japan Relations and the Pearl Harbor Attack
      • Hunger for Power and Self-SufficiencyI - Guide >
        • The Influence of War Rations on Post-War Culinary Transformations
        • How World War II Complicated Food Scarcity and Invention
        • American Military Innovations
        • Government-Sponsored Food Inventions in Europe during World War II
        • Feeding the Army: The Adaptation of Japanese Military Cuisine and Its Impact on the Philippines
        • Mixed Dishes: Culinary Innovations Driven by Necessity and Food Scarcity
      • Denial A Quick Look of History of Comfort Women and Present Days’ Complication - Guide >
        • The Comfort Women System and the Fight for Recognition
        • The Role of Activism and International Pressure
        • The Controversy over Japanese History Textbooks
        • The Sonyŏsang Statue and the Symbolism of Public Memorials
        • Activism and Support from Japanese Citizens
        • The Future of Comfort Women Memorials and Education
      • Echoes of Empire: The Power of Japanese Propaganda - Guide >
        • Brief Overview of Imperial Japan
        • Defining Propaganda
        • Propaganda Encouraging Action​
        • The Rise of Nationalism
        • The Formation of Japanese State Propaganda
        • Youth and Education
      • Shadows of the Rising Sun: The Black Dragon Society and the Dawn of Pan-Asianism - Guide >
        • Origins of the Black Dragon Society
        • The Influence of Pan-Asianism
        • Relationship with Sun Yat-sen
        • The Role in Southeast Asia
        • The Spread of Ideology and Espionage
        • Disbandment and Legacy
      • Chongqing Bombing: The Forgotten Blitz of Asia and Its Lasting Impact - Guide >
        • Introduction and Historical Background
        • The Class Divide During the Bombings
        • Resilience and Unity of Chongqing
        • Key Incidents - Great Tunnel Massacre
        • The Aftermath of the Bombings
        • Legacy and Commemoration
      • Shanghai's International Zone: A Nexus of War, Intelligence, and Survival - Guide >
        • Historical Background
        • The International Zone
        • Battles in Shanghai
        • Civilian Intelligence Efforts
        • Wartime Brutality
        • Aftermath & Legacy
    • Lesson Plans >
      • Reparations
      • Ethics in Science
      • Writing the Narrative of a Pinay Fighter
      • Privilege Journal
      • Environmental Injustices
      • Female Guerrillas
      • Hunter's ROTC
      • Scientific Advancements
      • Seeking Justice: A Humanities Lesson Plan
      • The Hukbalahap
      • Trading Immunity
      • Bataan Death March
      • Biochemical Warfare Development
  • History Remembered
Contribute