Women in Wartime: The Role of Indonesian Women During World War 2

by Iris Ong

Amidst the chaos of World War II, women in Indonesia shared a wide variety of experiences. With a difficult war, brutal Japanese occupation, and an independence movement not long after, many Indonesian women were forced into difficult positions and roles. Indonesian women’s roles during this period were extremely vital in ensuring Indonesia’s survival during this time of uncertainty and ultimately shaping Indonesia into what it is today. Their stories and contributions during this time should be acknowledged and remembered. This blog post will examine the experiences and contributions of Indonesian women during the war, including forced labor and their roles in the independence movement.

Comfort Women

The term comfort women, or jugun ianfu, refers to the girls and women who were coerced into sexual slavery for Japanese soldiers during World War II. It is estimated that up to 200,000 women (20,000 of which were Indonesian) were forced to work as comfort women during this period[1]. Many were lured and tricked with prospects of education or job opportunities but were instead sent to comfort stations.
The treatment of these women was devastating. They experienced extreme sexual abuse without proper care or facilities to support them. Many faced severe illness and injuries as a result. To the ruthless Japanese soldiers, these women were merely tools for them. As told by a primary account of the Japanese occupation in Banjumas, “Towards women the attitude of the Japanese was far from pleasing. Women had no value in their eyes. They were considered as creatures of lower order than men; only useful as servants or to satisfy desire.” [2]
Despite these difficult circumstances, some Indonesian women were able to avoid being forced into sexual slavery by displaying their marital status. In Malaka, a regency of Indonesia, women traditionally mark themselves with tattoos on their hands to signify their marriage. As Japanese soldiers continued to force Indonesian women into brothels, the single women of Malaka marked themselves in an attempt to prevent such a fate. [3]
​Presently, these victims continue to struggle to gain recognition and reparations for their experiences. A main factor in their plight is how society views the validity of their circumstances. Women who were taken as virgins and forced into brothels are considered  model survivors, which refers to victims who meet a set of moral standards.[4] Others that do not fit this set of criteria are unfortunately not sympathized with. Despite varying situations, all comfort women are ultimately victims of Japanese brutality: their stories play a significant role in World War II and should be recognized.

​Fujinkai

Fujinkai, which translates to women’s organization, was established in Indonesia shortly after the Japanese occupation. This organization, established by the Japanese government and spread throughout Indonesia’s islands, replaced all other women’s groups in Indonesia that were established before Fujinkai’s founding. The group was composed of women and girls over the age of 15. Their responsibilities included preparing women for combat, providing medical care, supporting soup kitchens, and pursuing a simple life.[5] Although some  women refused to join,a majority of women complied to avoid conflict. A handful of women  joined the organization willingly to fulfill their own goals.[6]
Despite being established by the occupying Japanese force, Indonesian women in Fujinkai utilized this organization as a cover for growing nationalist sentiments and to hide the larger movement. Although women were given military training to aid Japan in their war efforts, this training was also used to prepare themselves for national independence.[8] Furthermore, Fujinkai allowed women to organize themselves with other like-minded individuals, providing them the opportunity to hold nationalist dialogues and spread political sentiments. Regardless of the limited circumstances Indonesian women faced, they found ways to pursue their own ideals while also contributing to the independence movement.

Women training for the Indonesian National Revolution, 1945 [7]

Rasuna Said

Portrait of Rasuna Said as a member of the People's Representative Council in 1954.[9]

Even before the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, nationalist sentiments began to grow with the Indonesian Nationalist Awakening in 1908. This period of time was when the people of the Dutch East Indies began developing a national identity. This shift only further developed over time with the growth of both nationalist and political organizations. Women played a significant role in this political movement, providing support to organizations while also being active in nationalist dialogues. Despite their great contributions, there is only limited documentation of their achievements during this period. 
There remains one female figure whose political achievements earned her a national title. Rasuna Said, one of the most notable women in this movement,was granted the title of “National Hero” due to her political contributions to the Nationalist Movement. She is also widely known as “Lioness”, or Singa Betina, for her strength and commitment to Indonesia’s independence from Dutch rule.
Said first began her political career by joining the communist organization Sarikat Rakyat (People’s Union) which introduced her to other political figures and aggressive revolts. After this group was disbanded in 1927, Said became one of the female leaders of Persatuan Moeslimin Indonesia (Permi Union of Indonesian Muslims), which was known for its values towards both Islam and Nationalism.[10]
In 1932 during a Permi meeting, Rasuna gave a speech titled “Steps to the Independence of the People in a Greater Indonesia”. This speech greatly criticized Dutch rule and encouraged Indonesians to achieve independence from their colonizers.[11] The speech came about during a period in which Dutch concerns over Indonesian nationalist sentiments grew. She was soon charged with the crime of “sowing hate,” a crime no woman had been convicted of before, and sentenced to 15 months in prison. Rasuna was released in 1934 and soon began her career in journalism, writing for the popular journal Raya. She strongly advocated for women’s education and began teaching after the war. She continued to grow her political contributions both during the Japanese occupation and the Nationalist Revolution, but this period has limited documentation.[12]
Women in Indonesia had a range of roles and struggles during World War II and the Indonesian Nationalist Movement. It remains difficult for victims such as comfort women to receive acknowledgment for their experiences from both the Indonesian and Japanese governments. Fujinkai was dissolved soon after the end of the Japanese occupation in Indonesia and  was soon replaced with a new organization called Persatuan Wanita Indonesia (Women’s Union of Indonesia) which provided Indonesian women a platform to participate in political and nationalist endeavors, allowing them to have a voice in the independence movement. The contributions of women such as Rasuna Said paved the way for this development and she has since been memorialized in Indonesian history with the title of “National Hero”. In sum, despite the difficult circumstances these women were put through, many were able to find the strength to persevere and take advantage of the systems they were forced into. Their experiences and contributions should not be dismissed when recognizing Indonesia’s history.

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Sources:
1. PeaceWomen, "ASIA/PACIFIC: Comfort Women Break Silence to Tell Their Stories," PeaceWomen, last modified August 21, 2010, https://www.peacewomen.org/content/asiapacific-comfort-women-break-silence-tell-their-stories.
2. S. M. Gandasubrata, An account of the Japanese occupation of Banjumas Residency, Java, March 1942 to August 1945, August 1953, Southeast Asia Program Data Papers Series, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
3. Kathleen Malay and Rizky Rahad, "How Tattoos Saved These Indonesian Women From Sexual Slavery In World War II," VICE, last modified January 10, 2019, https://www.vice.com/en/article/3k9g8w/indonesia-comfort-women-japan-world-war-2-tattoos-vice.
4. ​Katharine McGregor, "Emotions and activism for former so-called “comfort women” of the Japanese Occupation of the Netherlands East Indies," Women's Studies International Forum 54 (2016): 72, doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2015.11.002.
5. Liberty Sproat, "Nurturing transitions: Housewife organizations in (colonial) Indonesia, 1900-1972,” Open Access Dissertations (2015): 112-122, https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/open_access_dissertations/560.
6. William H. Frederick et al., eds., The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War: In cooperation with the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 292.
7. Pusat Sejarah dan Tradisi ABRI. Women training for the Indonesian National Revolution, 1945., https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Women_training_for_the_Indonesian_National_Revolution.jpg
8. E. K. Poerwandari, Indonesian Women in a Changing Society (Seoul: Ewha Womans University Press, 2005), 49.
9. Ministry of Information of Indonesia, Portrait of Rasuna Said as the member of the People's Representative Council in 1954, photograph, Ministry of Information of Indonesia, 1954, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rasuna_Said,_Kami_Perkenalkan_(1954),_p111.jpg.
10. Susan Blackburn and Helen Ting, "Rasuna Said: Lioness of the Indonesian Independence Movement," in Women in Southeast Asian Nationalist Movements (NUS Press, 2013), 103.
11. Blackburn and Ting, "Rasuna Said," 107-110.
​12. Blackburn and Ting, "Rasuna Said," 114-117.