Tianjin's Tumultuous Century: A Story of Resilience from the Boxer Rebellion to Japanese Occupation Part 2

by Jenny Chan

Following the fall of Tianjin, foreign troops engaged in widespread looting and destruction throughout the city. It’s estimated that thousands of homes and businesses were looted, with valuable items, cultural artifacts, and personal belongings taken or destroyed. Foreign troops from multiple nations participated, taking whatever goods or valuables they could, often transporting them back to their home countries. Major commercial areas, government buildings, and residential quarters suffered extensive damage. Civilians in Tianjin faced brutal reprisals, with thousands of civilians reportedly killed in the aftermath, either as suspected Boxers or in indiscriminate acts of violence. Some were executed without trial, while others were killed during violent searches for Boxer sympathizers. Women and children were not spared and reports of widespread rape and assaults emerged.[1]

Japanese executioner prepares to behead a condemned Chinese man kneeling before his own grave, Tianjin China. 1901. Public Domain.

The Boxer Protocol (1901)
​In the aftermath of the Boxer Rebellion, the Boxer Protocol, signed on September 7, 1901, formalized China’s surrender to the foreign powers and imposed severe terms on the Qing Dynasty. The Boxer Protocol was one of the most punishing treaties China had ever faced, with several critical terms:

• Massive Indemnity: China was forced to pay an enormous indemnity of 450 million taels of silver (approximately $330 million USD at the time) to the eight foreign nations involved. This amount, with interest, was to be paid over 39 years and put a heavy financial strain on the Qing government.
• Foreign Military Presence: The protocol allowed for the establishment of foreign garrisons along the Beijing-Tianjin railway and permitted foreign troops to occupy parts of Beijing, Tianjin, and other strategic areas indefinitely. This solidified a foreign military presence in China’s heartland and further diminished Qing control over its territory.
• Execution of Qing Officials: The protocol demanded the execution or punishment of high-ranking Chinese officials who had supported the Boxers, including the infamous execution of leaders within the Qing administration. These punitive measures weakened the already fragile Qing bureaucracy and eroded internal loyalty.
• Ban on Anti-Foreign Societies: The Qing government was compelled to ban and suppress all anti-foreign organizations, including the Boxers, further reducing any organized resistance to foreign influence.
• Destruction of Fortifications: Fortifications at key locations, including Beijing and Tianjin, were destroyed to prevent future military resistance, leaving China vulnerable to foreign encroachment. [2]

Boxer Protocol

More details Signing of the Boxer Protocol. Left, from left to right: F.M Knobel from Netherlands (only see his hands); K. Jutaro from Japan; G. S. Raggi from Italy; Joostens from Belgium; C. von Walhborn from Austria-Hungary; B. J. Cologán from Spain; M. von Giers from Russia; A. Mumm for German Empire; E. M. Satow from Britain; W. W. Rockhill from US; P. Beau from France; Lian Fang; Li Hongzhang; Prince Qing. 1901.

Map of Concessions in Tientsin (Tianjin)

Tianjin’s Transformation into Foreign Concessions
Following the Boxer Rebellion, Tianjin became the site of even more intense foreign influence. In the aftermath, the city was divided into several concessions controlled by Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Japan, and Russia. Each of these areas operated independently of Chinese law, creating small enclaves that resembled European cities where foreign powers had their legal systems, police forces, and administrative controls. Tianjin’s streets became lined with European-style buildings, and these concessions grew into centers of trade, diplomacy, and foreign culture. For the local Chinese population, however, these concessions symbolized humiliation and the loss of sovereignty.[3]
The period of foreign occupation transformed Tianjin into a unique blend of cultures, architecture, and economies, but it also deepened the divisions between the Chinese people and the foreign powers. The resentment born in these years would simmer, adding to the growing nationalist sentiment that would later fuel China’s struggle for independence and self-determination.
Impact on the Qing Dynasty and the Path to CollapseThe Boxer Protocol and the loss of Tianjin marked the beginning of the end of the Qing Dynasty. Already weakened by years of internal strife, foreign encroachment, and corruption, the Qing faced enormous pressure from both external powers and internal reformist movements. 
The enormous indemnity imposed by the protocol drained the Qing treasury, forcing the government to impose new taxes on an already impoverished population and further increasing resentment as the people watched their nation’s wealth siphoned off to foreign powers. The presence of foreign troops and garrisons in Beijing and Tianjin underscored the Qing Dynasty’s inability to protect its capital and maintain sovereignty. The encroachment of foreign powers into China's political and cultural centers further tarnished the dynasty’s image. Many intellectual Chinese people were in favor of reform. Nationalist groups blamed the Qing government for failing to resist foreign aggression and mismanaging the Boxer Rebellion. This resentment inspired new revolutionary movements, including the anti-Qing Tongmenghui (United League) led by Sun Yat-sen, which sought to overthrow the dynasty and establish a republic. Although the humiliation of the Boxer Protocol intensified calls for modernization and reform, the Qing’s late-stage reform attempts known as the New Policies were ultimately seen as insufficient and untimely, and were often met with resistance from conservative factions within the court. This combination of economic strain, loss of sovereignty, rising anti-Qing sentiment, and failed reforms accelerated the dynasty's collapse and paved the way for the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, which ultimately led to the abdication of the last Qing emperor, Puyi, in 1912 leading to the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China.[4]

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Zhang Zuolin in Beiyang Army regalia

The Warlord Era
​The Warlord Era dawned quickly on China after the fall of the Qing Dynasty. During the Warlord Era (1916–1928), Tianjin became a focal point of political and military maneuvering as various factions vied for control over northern China. The collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 and the subsequent fragmentation of authority left China divided among regional warlords, each commanding their respective armies. Tianjin’s strategic importance as a port city near Beijing and its role as a hub for commerce and transportation made it a prize for any warlord seeking to consolidate power in the north.
During this period, Tianjin was influenced by both domestic warlords and foreign powers controlling their respective concessions. The concessions remained insulated from much of the chaos and allowed them to thrive economically while the surrounding areas became battlegrounds for competing warlords. For much of the 1920s, Tianjin fell under the sphere of influence of Zhang Zuolin, the warlord of Manchuria and leader of the Fengtian Clique (奉天系), who controlled much of northern China. Zhang utilized Tianjin’s strategic location to consolidate his economic and political power. The Fengtian Clique’s strength was rooted in the wealth and strategic advantages of Manchuria, a region rich in natural resources such as coal, iron, and agricultural products. This economic base enabled the clique to control vital infrastructure, like the South Manchurian Railway, which further bolstered its power. Militarily, the Fengtian Clique maintained a large and modernized army, often equipped with weapons imported from Japan or purchased through the substantial revenues generated from Manchuria’s industries. Japan initially supported the clique to secure its influence in the region, providing crucial backing that helped the Fengtian Clique dominate northeastern China. However, as Zhang Zuolin sought greater autonomy, tensions with Japan began to emerge, which led to conflicts that undermined the faction’s long-term stability.[5]
In 1928, the Chinese nationalist government (Kuomintang or KMT) under Chiang Kai-shek launched the Northern Expedition, a military campaign to unify China and end warlord rule. The campaign was successful in pushing back regional warlords like Zhang Zuolin, who was assassinated by the Japanese during his retreat to Manchuria. By the late 1920s, Tianjin became under the nominal control of the KMT, although the foreign concessions remained outside Chinese jurisdiction. Under KMT rule, Tianjin began to see efforts to modernize the city and reintegrate it into a unified China. However, the KMT’s control was tenuous because it faced challenges from both internal divisions and external pressures.[6]

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Sources. 

1. Thompson, Larry Clinton. William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the "Ideal Missionary" . Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009. Print. P. 168
   
2. "The Boxer Protocol, 1901." Reparations at QUB , Queen’s University Belfast, 1901, https://reparations.qub.ac.uk/assets/uploads/Boxer-Protocol.pdf . Accessed May 4th. PDF download 
   
3. "Jews of Tianjin." Jews of China , https://www.jewsofchina.org/tianjin#:~:text=The%20so%2Dcalled%20Boxer%20Protocol,rifle%20company%20was%20a%20part . Accessed 5 Apr. 2025.
   
4. Chinese Revolution of 1911." U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian , https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/chinese-rev . Accessed 5 Apr. 2025.
   
5. Carter, James. "This Week in China’s History: The Assassination." Sinitic Podcast , 24 Mar. 2024, https://www.sinicapodcast.com/p/this-week-in-chinas-history-the-assassination . Accessed 5 Apr. 2025.
   

6. JORDAN, DONALD A. The Northern Expedition: China’s National Revolution of 1926–1928. University of Hawai’i Press, 1976. JSTOR, ​