Tianjin's Tumultuous Century: A Story of Resilience from the Boxer Rebellion to Japanese Occupation (Part 1)

by Jenny Chan

Tianjin, located in northern China, lies along the Bohai Sea's western coast and at the Grand Canal's north end, near the confluence of the Haihe River and several other major waterways. It is approximately 120 kilometers (75 miles) southeast of Beijing, making it a key gateway to the Chinese capital. Tianjin has historically been a critical strategic location due to its proximity to Beijing and its role as a major port and transportation hub. Tianjin served as the primary access point to Beijing from the sea, making it invaluable for foreign powers seeking to project power, enforce demands, and protect their diplomatic legations in Beijing during periods of unrest, such as the Boxer Rebellion. As a treaty port opened after the Treaty of Tientsin in 1858, Tianjin became a vital center of commerce, facilitating the import of foreign goods and the export of Chinese products like silk and tea. Its location at the terminus of the Grand Canal further linked maritime trade with inland transportation networks, solidifying its importance in controlling the movement of goods and people across northern China. Positioned at the convergence of several rivers, Tianjin also became a key point for riverine trade and military movements, especially during conflicts.[1] By the late 19th century, Tianjin emerged as a critical railway hub, with the Beijing-Tianjin railway enhancing its connectivity and strategic value by providing rapid transportation between the port and the capital. Militarily, control over Tianjin allowed foreign powers to secure their foothold in northern China and launch campaigns, as seen during the Boxer Rebellion and the Japanese invasion in 1937. The city's fortifications and its role as a gateway to Beijing made it a highly contested and strategically significant location throughout modern Chinese history. This series will explore foreigners' struggles to obtain Tianjin through military campaigns, diplomatic maneuvers, and economic exploitation.

Company of Boxers in Tianjin, China. Group of men walking down street.

The Boxer Rebellion(1899-1901): Seeds of Resistance
​Life in China during the late 19th century, leading up to and including the Boxer Rebellion, was marked by economic hardship, political instability, foreign domination, and social unrest. These harsh conditions shaped the lives of ordinary people and set the stage for movements like the Boxer Rebellion. One such individual was Zhao Sanduo, whose rise to prominence during this turbulent period reflected the widespread discontent of the time. Born in Shaliuzhai Village, Wei County, in China's Hebei Province, Zhao came from a family of farmers and faced significant economic challenges in his youth. He took on various jobs to support himself, including laboring and selling bowls, before turning to martial arts, which became his true calling. His dedication to mastering Meihuaquan (Plum Flower Boxing) earned him widespread respect, and he quickly became a renowned instructor. By 1895, Zhao had established multiple training centers, attracting over 2,000 students from neighboring regions. Many of his followers were employed as yamen runners (local law enforcement agents), which gave Zhao both a loyal network and leverage in disputes with Qing authorities. This foundation of discipline and unity among his students would later serve as the backbone for his leadership during the Boxer Rebellion. [2]
Zhao Sanduo's rise as an organizer and leader during the rebellion was fueled by the pervasive resentment toward foreign concessions and their control over China. These concessions, forcibly established by foreign powers in key coastal cities and regions, symbolized China's loss of sovereignty and the exploitation of its people. They carved out chunks of Chinese land as quasi-colonies under foreign rule, introducing profound economic and social divides. Zhao's motivation to rally Chinese youth against foreign presence was deeply rooted in these injustices, keenly felt in cities like Shanghai, Tianjin, and especially Shandong, where German occupation after 1897 became a significant catalyst for anti-foreign sentiment. This combination of personal leadership, martial discipline, and widespread resentment made Zhao a central figure in the Boxer Rebellion, which sought to reclaim Chinese sovereignty and dignity.[3]
The concessions began after China's defeat in the First Opium War and the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, which opened key cities like Canton, Shanghai, Xiamen, Fuzhou, and Ningbo to foreign trade and residence. These treaty ports soon transformed into foreign enclaves with extraterritorial rights and foreign-dominated municipal systems.[4] For example, the British in Shanghai ran their own police forces, administered their own laws, and established infrastructure that effectively excluded Chinese citizens from reaping the benefits of modernization. As Zhao Sanduo and others witnessed these cities become fragmented with foreign-controlled districts, resentment festered among the local population, who bore the social and economic costs of these developments.[5]
The Second Opium War (1856–1860) and the Treaty of Tientsin (Tianjin) further intensified foreign control, adding more ports and granting foreign legations access to Beijing. This emboldened foreign powers to seek further expansion, especially in northern China. With each treaty, China's sovereignty was eroded, and Zhao Sanduo's generation grew up seeing foreign powers exploit their land and people.[6]
In Shandong, a province neighboring Zhao's home region of Hebei, tensions reached a boiling point in 1897 during what became known as the Juye Incident(曹州敎案), when two German missionaries were murdered in Juye County. Germany capitalized on this event to seize Jiaozhou Bay and demand a 99-year lease over the area, including the city of Qingdao. The Germans developed Qingdao into a model colony, introducing railroads, factories, and urban structures, transforming it into a German-style city.[7] However, these developments came at the expense of local farmers, who were often displaced and saw their land appropriated. Shandong's economic hardship, exacerbated by drought and famine, worsened as German forces settled in and profited from the region's resources. This foreign occupation in Shandong fueled widespread resentment, inspiring figures like Zhao Sanduo and many others in northern China, who saw their homeland increasingly dominated by outsiders, symbolizing the Qing Dynasty's inability to protect its people and territory.​

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Contemporary German drawing depicting the killings of Franz Xavier Nies (left) and Richard Henle (right) in the Juye incident (signed E. Regler), created 1902

The Boxer Rebellion was a culmination of decades of pent-up frustration with foreign domination and Zhao Sanduo emerged as a key figure in organizing youth to join the movement. The Boxers, known as the Yihequan ("Righteous and Harmonious Fists"), was a secret society organized by Zhao Sanduo. The members practiced martial arts and believed they possessed supernatural abilities to resist bullets. Their rage was directed against foreign missionaries, Chinese Christians, and imperial powers who had exerted increasing control over Chinese territory and resources, especially following the unequal treaties that weakened China.
Although the Boxers were originally a secret society, the group transformed into a nationalist, anti-foreign, and anti-Christian movement as youths rallied under the call to "support the Qing, destroy the foreign" (扶清滅洋). Zhao and his peers found common ground in their disdain for the privileges granted to foreigners, who imposed their religions, extracted resources, and profited from labor in cities like Shanghai, Tianjin, and Qingdao. The sight of foreign-built railways, churches, and military installations on Chinese soil served as daily reminders of lost autonomy.[8]
For Zhao Sanduo and the youth he inspired, joining the Boxers was a way to resist foreign encroachment and assert Chinese identity and sovereignty. Although they were ultimately unsuccessful in expelling foreign powers, they symbolized a fierce desire for self-determination that resonated long after the Boxer Rebellion. The concessions and occupations, especially the Germans' seizure of Jiaozhou Bay in Shandong, were not only catalysts for Zhao's activism but also emblematic of the broader struggle against imperialism that shaped modern Chinese nationalism.
Because Tianjin was a strategic port city, it became a crucial battleground during the Boxer Rebellion, drawing intense conflict due to its role as a major gateway to Beijing. The city was surrounded by foreign influence, with concessions granted to multiple Western powers, including Japan, each controlling its own district and armed forces. This foreign presence made Tianjin a focal point for Boxer hostility. In June 1900, the Boxers began besieging the foreign concessions in Tianjin, targeting foreign residents as well as Chinese people who converted to Christianity.[9]
The siege in Tianjin formed part of a broader assault on foreigners in northern China; the Siege of the Legations in Beijing, where foreign diplomats, civilians, and Chinese Christians sought refuge within the city's diplomatic quarter, barricading themselves in against Boxer and Qing forces. To relieve the besieged foreigners in Tianjin and Beijing, a multi-national force led by British Vice-Admiral Edward Seymour launched the Seymour Expedition. Seymour, responding to a call for help from British commander Claude MacDonald, quickly assembled a force of 916 British sailors, 455 Germans, 326 Russians, 158 French, 112 Americans, 54 Japanese, 41 Italians, and 26 Austro-Hungarians. This international coalition advanced from the Bohai coast, intending to break the siege on Tianjin and then continue to relieve Beijing.[10]
However, the Seymour Expedition encountered fierce resistance from both Boxer forces and Qing imperial troops. Armed mostly with traditional weapons but motivated by strong anti-foreign sentiments, the Boxers initially surprised the coalition with their intense resistance and guerilla tactics. By June 21, 1900, the situation escalated as the powerful Empress Dowager Cixi formally declared war on the foreign powers, leading to a new wave of Qing support for the Boxers.[11] The combined forces of Boxers and Qing soldiers actively resisting the eight-nation alliance likely numbered between 40,000 and 60,000. This force presented a formidable challenge to the multi-national troops, ultimately lacking the modern weaponry and cohesive command structure needed to sustain prolonged defense against the better-equipped allied forces. At this point, even previously neutral European nations such as the Netherlands, Spain, and Belgium began supporting the eight-nation alliance, joining in what would become one of the largest multi-national coalitions of the era.

Battle of Tianjin, Japanese soldiers

The defense was initially successful, with the Qing army actively fighting alongside the Boxers. Chinese forces were able to push back the international troops, forcing the retreat of the Seymour Expedition. However, after regrouping and receiving reinforcements, the eight-nation alliance launched a second, more forceful attack on Tianjin. Japanese forces took a prominent role, leading the coalition's final push against the city's defenses. The Japanese troops, equipped with advanced artillery and firearms, managed to breach the city's gates, dealing a decisive blow to the combined Boxer and Qing defenses.[12]
On July 14, 1900, after a brutal and protracted battle, Tianjin finally fell to the coalition forces. The capture of Tianjin marked a significant turning point because it opened the path to Beijing for the Allied forces, leading to the eventual fall of the city and the end of the rebellion. Foreign forces' occupation of Tianjin and Beijing deepened their influence and control over China, solidifying foreign dominance in these key cities and extending their political and economic presence within the country. It intensified calls for reform and modernization, laying the groundwork for future uprisings and resistance movements. [13]

The loss of Tianjin to the eight-nation alliance in July 1900 had severe and lasting consequences for the city and China. Following the fall of Tianjin, foreign troops unleashed a brutal campaign of looting, violence, and reprisals against the city's civilian population. Reports from the time describe widespread looting of homes and businesses as well as atrocities including rape, assault, and executions of suspected Boxers and civilians alike. The foreign powers, seeking to punish and intimidate the local population, devastated Tianjin, leaving deep scars of resentment and humiliation that fueled anti-foreign sentiment in the years to come.

1. United States Department of State. "The Boxer Rebellion, 1899–1901." Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dwe/82012.htm. Accessed November 29 2024.
2. Kings and Generals. "Fall and Rise of China: Yihequan - Why Is Everyone Kungfu Fighting?" Kings and Generals Podcast, episode 359, Libsyn, 2023, https://kingsandgenerals.libsyn.com/359-fall-and-rise-of-china-yihequan-why-is-everyone-kungfu-fighting. Accessed November 29 2024.
3. Stein, George. "The Qingdao Colony: A German Enclave in China." University of Michigan, https://websites.umich.edu/~geostein/docs/Qingdaocolony.pdf. Accessed November 29 2024.
4. Office of the Historian. "The Opening to China Part I: The First Opium War, the United States, and the Treaty of Wangxia, 1839–1844." U.S. Department of State, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/china-1. Accessed November 29 2024.
5. "History of Shanghai's 1st Foreign Concession." Culture Shock Shanghai, https://www.culture-shock-shanghai.com/blog/the-history-of-shanghai-s-1st-foreign-concession. Accessed November 29 2024.
6. Office of the Historian. "The Opening to China Part II: The Second Opium War, the United States, and the Treaty of Tientsin, 1857–1859." U.S. Department of State, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/china-2. Accessed November 29 2024.
7. "OER Lesson: The Boxer Rebellion and the Fall of the Qing Dynasty." OER Commons, https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87938/student/?section=2. Accessed November 29 2024.
8. Fandino, Daniel. "Fire in a Distant Heaven: The Boxer Uprising as a Domestic Crisis in the United States." Electronic Theses and Dissertations, no. 4579, 2014, University of Central Florida, https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/4579. Accessed November 29 2024.
9. Clements, Paul Henry. The Boxer Rebellion: A Political and Diplomatic Review. Vol. 66, Issues 1–3, Columbia University, 1915, p. 135. Accessed December 2 2024.
10. "China Relief Expedition." Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, https://web.archive.org/web/20161206044959/http://www.jhuapl.edu/ourwork/nsa/papers/China%20ReliefSm.pdf. Accessed November 30 2024.
11. Wright, David. "The Chinese Empress Dowager Cixi Declares War on Foreigners." OUPblog, Oxford University Press, June 17 2012, https://blog.oup.com/2012/06/chinese-empress-cixi-declares-war-on-foreigners/. Accessed November 29 2024.
12. Abdow, Emily. The Boxer Rebellion: Bluejackets and Marines in China, 1900–1901. Naval History and Heritage Command, 2023, https://www.history.navy.mil/content/dam/nhhc/research/publications/publication-508-pdf/Boxer_Rebellion_508.pdf. Accessed November 29 2024.
13. Klingenberg, Mitchell G. Americans and the Dragon: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting from the Boxer Uprising. United States Department of Defense, 2023, https://media.defense.gov/2023/Sep/26/2003308969/-1/-1/0/AMERICANS%20AND%20THE%20DRAGON_LESSONS%20IN%20COALITION%20WARFIGHTING%20FROM%20THE%20BOXER%20UPRISING.PDF. Accessed December 1 2024.