The Forgotten Sanctuary- Life in the Shanghai International Settlement During the Battle of Shanghai

by M. Stock

The International Zone, an often forgotten neutral zone that existed in Shanghai, played a unique role during the Battle of Shanghai (Aug 13, 1937 – Nov 26, 1937). It became a refuge for all kinds of citizens, including Chinese and foreigners fleeing battle-entrenched zones in the region. The intense fighting lasted months in the rest of the city while daily life went on inside the International Zone, though not without challenges. ​

Plan for Shanghai showing Regional Development (1931). [1]

Origin of the International Zone:

The origins of the International Zone date back to the end of the Opium Wars (1839-1860). Around this time, China opened to the rest of the world once more.[2] During the Asia-Pacific War (also known as the Pacific Theatre of WWII), the international community tried to provide aid to those who sought shelter in the International Zone. Austrian Jews were among the groups that saw the International Zone as a safe haven to settle.  Fleeing the Nazis, they settled in the Hongkou section of the International Settlement after the end of the Battle of Shanghai (1937). This section would eventually become known as “The Shanghai Ghetto” and “Little Vienna” as a result.[3] Close to half a million Chinese citizens would also find their way to the International Settlement over the course of the Battle of Shanghai, which lasted from August to November 1937. The intense fighting and chaos devastated the city and disrupted normalcy.[4]

Life In The International Zone during the battle: ​

The Battle of Shanghai began on August 13th, 1937, and is thought of as the first major battle of the Asia-Pacific War.[5] The battle raged throughout the city, ranging from fighting on the ground in the center to the outskirts, where trench warfare occurred. Naval and air warfare were also extremely prevalent during this incident. The International Zone, before its takeover by Imperial Japan in 1941, would provide refuge for citizens.

Life continued strenuously, particularly due to overcrowding and conflict that brewed within the settlement. Many Chinese citizens were already living in the International Zone under the Municipal Council before the battle began, and the number of settlers grew steeply after the outbreak of fighting.[6] The total civilian population of Shanghai reached approximately 3,204,012 people between 1925 and 1937, making Shanghai one of the largest cities in the world prior to the war. Of this, the International Zone held nearly 1,023,330 civilians. The Bund was a significant part of the infrastructure of the International Zone, which was the home of lavish hotels, custom ports, gardens, and the Shanghai waterfront.[7] Chinese and foreign shops also existed in the International Zone, in addition to restaurants that provided meals of varying kinds of cuisines. Recreational parks and race tracks provided leisure outlets where businessmen owned stables and bet on pony races. A large portion of the population within the broader city of Shanghai depends on the flourishing businesses inside the International Zone. Before the International Zone became a place of refuge, it was depended on for its resources and infrastructure. Life in the International Zone during the war was marked by consistent shortages of basic necessities, crowded living quarters with, at times 30 people to a living space, and difficulties in inter-community communication due to language and cultural barriers.
Many of the immigrants who arrived in the International Zone did not speak any of the many Chinese dialects, such as Cantonese, Mandarin, Shanghainese, etc., nor did they speak  English. The famous Sassoon and Kadoorie families were among the immigrants that arrived in the International Zone. The Sassoon family, a prominent Jewish family, arrived in Shanghai after fleeing persecution in Iraq in 1829. The Sassoons' businesses at one point spanned throughout the entire continent of Asia in the 18th century. They built a presence in the city that is still notable today: The Sassoon family once owned the Cathay Hotel, now called the Peace Hotel, on the Bund. There, they built a dynasty through business, trading, and profiting from the opium trade. The Kadoorie family also had similar migration ties to Shanghai, also being of Iraqi Jewish origin and having fled due to persecution. They, too, arrived in Shanghai and built their own dynasty, eventually rivaling the Sassoon family dynasty primarily through investing and dealing in rubber while also dabbling in the growing auto industry.[8]

Peace Hotel in November 2023, original photo

David Sassoon and three of his sons in Bombay in 1858 [9]

Both families are credited with saving and protecting approximately eighteen thousand Jews during The Holocaust. The Sassoon and Kadoorie families, along with Ho Feng Shan, the Chinese diplomat in Vienna at the time, were responsible for the survival of a significant portion of Austrian Jewish communities. The experiences of the Sassoons and Kadoories are just two examples of the diverse experiences of ethnic minorities in Shanghai before, during, and after World War 2 who relied on the city as a safe haven. For many, Shanghai was one of the last places to serve as a refuge as the city did not require refugees and migrants to carry extensive travel papers during wartime. This made Shanghai a sanctuary city for refugees and minorities fleeing persecution.

Challenges:

The increase in settlers during and after the battle of Shanghai put a strain on the already scarce resources that the city had. International aid was difficult to obtain both during the months-long battle and after. While Shanghai was not depleted in resources as much as other regions conquered by Imperial Japan in “The Outer Zone,” including Burma, Siam, Indo-China, and Malaya, international aid and resources (including food and basic necessities), were hard to come by due to the battle.[10]

During the battle for Shanghai, citizens from other areas of China began to flee to the International Settlement for safety. While the Nationalist Army led by Chang Kai Shek was deployed to take and defend Shanghai, their small and inexperienced air force was outnumbered and outmaneuvered by the Imperial Japanese, leading to an incident known as “Bloody Saturday” in the International Zone.[11] A bomb deployed by the Nationalist Army planes missed a Japanese light cruiser stationed in the port city. Instead of hitting its intended target, the bomb landed on a street where the site of the Palace Hotel stood, filled with civilians. The Palace Hotel in the International Zone was built by the Iraqi-Jewish Sassoon Family.[12] Its history during the war is significant since many civilians rushed out of the hotels nearby to attempt to help those wounded in the bombing. The impact of the first two bombs that hit the Palace and Cathay Hotels would be absorbed by the buildings, though the third bomb would land in the street. Due to the impact of all three bombs, the casualties amounted to over a thousand, with an additional 830 wounded.[13] The Palace Hotel was an iconic site on the Bund, along with the Cathay Hotel, the latter hosting many famous guests, including Chaing Kai Shek, who would become the leader of The Nationalist Army. The damage to the two hotels and the effects of the bombing caused the British to worry about Shanghai becoming an additional theater of war and led to the implementation of a curfew for civilians inside the International Zone. International Zone civilians tried to be as discreet as possible in their movements to survive. This included turning out lights, closing window curtains, and staying indoors from 10 PM to 5 AM. Despite these rules, civilians of Shanghai’s diverse ethnic minorities continued to partake in celebrations or rituals (to help build community morale during wartime) and collaborated with other citizens to ensure all International Zone inhabitants had access to essential resources.[14] Newspapers and radio stations in a variety of languages that covered different topics were a fixture in the International Zone. Many hotels in Shanghai also provided places to entertain guests and provided spaces for cultural exchange despite the wartime restrictions. 

Conclusion:

While the International Settlement dates back to the end of the Opium Wars and the opening of China to the world, Shanghai’s International Zone struggled with difficult times during the Battle of Shanghai. Shortages of necessities like food, water, and living space along with difficulty in the delivery of aid made life difficult for both the Chinese and foreign citizens residing in the International Zone. Despite the endless difficulties, civilians helped to rebuild and maintain Shanghai: examples include the Sassoon and Kadoorie families, survivors of the “Bloody Saturday” bombing, civilians in the French Concession, and residents of the Zhabei, Hongkou, and Yangshupu districts.[15] The legacy of the International Zone continues to have a strong presence in modern Shanghai even though the city has since been rebuilt in the devastating aftermath of war and years of Japanese occupation.

The Bund, which is part of the historical international zone of Shanghai. The Bund is located along the western bank of the Huangpu River and is renowned for its historical buildings that showcase a variety of architectural styles, including Gothic, Baroque, Romanesque, and Art Deco.

Sources:
1. Plan for Shanghai showing Regional Development. Accessed June 24, 2024. http://asmrb.pbworks.com/w/page/9959026/Pulp%20Shanghai 
2. The history of Shanghai between the 1830s and 1950s, accessed June 19, 2024, https://review.gale.com/2023/12/05/researching-the-history-of-shanghai-between-the-1830s-and-1950s/.
3. “Little Vienna In Shanghai Exhibition,” Visiting Vienna, June 7, 2023, https://www.visitingvienna.com/sights/museums/little-vienna-in-shanghai-exhibition/.
4. Liping Yang and the Gale Review Team, “Researching the history of Shanghai Between the 1830s and 1950s,” Gale International, The Gale Review, accessed June 19, 2024, https://review.gale.com/2023/12/05/researching-the-history-of-shanghai-between-the-1830s-and-1950s/.
5. A military analysis of the Battle of Shanghai, 13 August - DTIC, accessed June 12, 2024, https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA378228.pdf. 
6. OVERSEAS: China (Code 0(J)): Reports by Brigadier Telfer-Smallett of the Shanghai Emergency. 1937-1938. MS WO 32/4347, WO 32 War Office and successors: Registered Files. The National Archives (Kew, United Kingdom). China and the Modern World (accessed June 19, 2024). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/PZYOIQ898262557/CFER?u=omni&sid=bookmark-CFER&xid=e4734714&pg=18.
7. “Pulp Shanghai.” ASMRB / Pulp Shanghai. Accessed June 24, 2024. http://asmrb.pbworks.com/w/page/9959026/Pulp%20Shanghai. 
8. Kaufman, Jonathan, The Last Kings of Shanghai: The Rival Jewish Dynasties that Helped Create Modern China (London: Penguin Books, 2021), 64-81.
9. Unknown author, circa 1850s, “David Sassoon and sons,” black and white photograph, public domain Wikimedia Commons, last accessed June 24, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassoon_family#/media/File:David_Sassoon_and_sons.jpg. 
10. Reference Division, “Developments in the Economic Structure of the Co-Prosperity Sphere During the Past Year Part II- The Outer Zone,” Pacific Asia War Archive, accessed June 12, 2024, https://pacificatrocitiesedu.reclaim.hosting/admin/items/show/714. 
11. “Historical Photographs of China,” Victims of “Bloody Saturday” bombing, Ave Edward VII, Shanghai, 14 August 1937 | Historical Photographs of China, accessed June 24, 2024, https://hpcbristol.net/visual/AL-s63.
12. Minicy Catom Software Engineering Ltd. www.catom.com, “World War II: China-Shanghai,” Publications | Shanghai | Communities | The Jewish Community of China, accessed June 19, 2024, http://www.jewsofchina.org/world-war-ii-china%E2%80%94shanghai.
13. Christian Henriot, “August 1937: War and the Death En Masse of Civilians: Virtual Shanghai,” August 1937: War and the death en masse of civilians | Virtual Shanghai, accessed June 24, 2024, https://www.virtualshanghai.net/Texts/Articles?ID=130.
14. Kaufman, Jonathan. The last kings of Shanghai: The rival Jewish dynasties that helped create modern China. London: Penguin Books, an imprint of Penguin Random House LLC, 2021.
15. Christian Henriot, “August 1937: War and the Death En Masse of Civilians: Virtual Shanghai,” August 1937: War and the death en masse of civilians | Virtual Shanghai, accessed June 24, 2024, https://www.virtualshanghai.net/Texts/Articles?ID=130.

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