Japan's Imperial Ambitions: Unpacking the Ideologies, Propaganda, and Human Cost of Empire in Manchuria

by John Mikhailik

Japan's Opening Incursions into Its Neighbors

In the early 1900s, Japan sought to establish itself as an imperial power, aiming to acquire land, resources, and labor to fuel its growing economy and military ambitions. This rapid expansion led to the gradual annexation of neighboring regions over time. In 1895, following the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan seized Taiwan from the Qing Dynasty, marking its first major overseas colony.
After defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Japan gained significant influence in southern Manchuria, particularly control over the South Manchurian Railway. While Japan did not fully replace Russian presence in the region, it consolidated its dominance in the south, with Russia retaining influence in northern Manchuria. Over the next few decades, Japan used its military and economic power to gain further control over Manchuria's vital infrastructure and resources.
Finally, in 1910, Japan formally annexed Korea after years of increasing political and military pressure. The Korean royal family was deposed, and Korea became a colony of Japan until 1945. Japanese troops were stationed along key railways, and Japanese corporations (known as Zaibatsu) began extracting resources and establishing themselves in the region. During this period, China was embroiled in civil conflict, limiting the central government's ability to exert control over its provinces.
In 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army swiftly invaded Manchuria, using the Mukden Incident as a pretext. By 1932, they had established the puppet state of Manchukuo, presenting it as an "independent" nation under Japanese guidance.

The Harmonization of Two Ideals

​The state of Manchukuo was portrayed by the Japanese government as a close economic and political ally of Japan. To justify its conquest of Manchuria, Japan adopted two seemingly contradictory ideological concepts.
The first was the Western idea of the "civilizing mission," which posited that technologically and intellectually advanced nations had a duty to spread "civilization" to supposedly backward peoples. Japan adapted this rhetoric, positioning itself as the "civilized" power bringing modernization and order to Manchuria. According to this narrative, the expansion of the Japanese Empire would spread technology, knowledge, and prosperity to the conquered regions.
The second ideology was Pan-Asianism, the notion that Asians should unite to resist Western imperialism. Japan presented its actions as being in the interest of all Asians, framing itself as a leader in the fight against colonial domination. To promote this image, Japan created institutions like the Concordia Association and the Manchukuo Film Association, which propagated Pan-Asian ideals. However, these efforts masked Japan's own imperialist exploitation of Asian territories.

The poster reads: “Let's go to Manchuria!!” Depicting a smiling Japanese Peasant woman with a harvest, with a colony in the background (Japanese Ministry of Colonial Affairs)

The poster reads: “First anniversary of the establishment of Manchukuo” on “March 1st, 1933” (Nagoya City Museum, from the Kurita collection)

Manchu Identity in Propaganda

For the entirety of its existence, the government of Manchukuo served as a puppet state, beholden to Japanese economic and military interests. In 1932, the League of Nations sent the Lytton Commission to investigate Japan's actions in Manchuria. The commission's report revealed the extent of Japanese control, exposing Manchukuo as nothing more than a facade. The League called for Japan to withdraw from Manchuria and restore Chinese sovereignty. Japan rejected the report and withdrew from the League in 1933, isolating itself diplomatically.
With its international credibility diminished, Japan sought to build a new sense of legitimacy and identity for Manchukuo. To achieve this, the Japanese appropriated a Chinese republican ideology: "Five Races Under One Union." Originally devised by the Qing Dynasty and later adopted by the Republic of China, this concept promoted unity among China's five major ethnic groups: Han (red), Manchus (yellow), Mongols (blue), Muslims (white), and Tibetans (black).
Japan altered this framework to fit its imperial vision, redefining the five races as Yamato (red), Han (blue), Mongols (white), Koreans (black), and Manchus (yellow). The formerly sino-centric concept was remodeled to place the Japanese (Yamato) race at the center of the hierarchy, reinforcing Japan's dominance over the region.

The poster reads: “With the cooperation and solidarity of Japan, Manchuria, and China, the world can be at peace.” Circa 1935.

Manchuria as a Piece of the Empire

​The ideals of industrial expansion and imperial competition that characterized the Victorian era had taken root in Japan. To the people of the Japanese home islands, Manchuria was portrayed as a "jewel in the crown" of the empire. The territory was vast and sparsely populated compared to Japan, offering abundant mineral wealth and arable land.
Japanese leaders feared that the home islands could be cut off from international maritime trade due to their lack of self-sufficiency in agricultural and mineral resources. Manchuria was touted as a solution to these vulnerabilities, serving as both the breadbasket and mine of the Japanese Empire.
The majority of Manchuria's population was engaged in agricultural production, while large cities sprang up along railways and mining regions. Japanese conglomerates controlled all output in cooperation with the Kwantung Army. The Japanese government encouraged farmers from rural regions to settle in Manchuria, promising them land and assistance. However, these settlements often came at the expense of native populations, causing widespread discontent among non-Japanese civilians. Meanwhile, technical graduates from Japan's cities flocked to Manchuria to work in mining and refining industries.

The poster reads: “The Great Manchu State” While showing representatives of the five races holding hands. (Nagoya City Museum, from the Kurita collection)

The Ugly Reality

The reasons Japan produced propaganda were manifold. The functioning of the Japanese Empire inflicted immense suffering on those under its rule. Even within the home islands, strict rationing and a repressive militaristic environment stifled open political discourse and artistic expression. Aggressive foreign policy led to destructive wars with nearly all of Japan's neighbors, enabling the government to justify any act in the name of victory.
Inhumane practices were rampant in Manchuria. Unit 731, a covert biological and chemical warfare research unit, conducted horrific experiments on prisoners. The mining and coal industries subjected workers to hellish conditions, with inadequate safety measures and brutal treatment. The bloated and corrupt Kwantung Army enabled the Zaibatsu to exploit local populations, who had little recourse against abuse. Settler-colonial policies rendered native populations second-class citizens in their own homeland.
Propaganda was a tool for the Japanese government to control the narrative and present its imperial ventures in a patriotic light. To uncritical Western observers, Japan's empire appeared noble and morally uncomplicated. The conquest of Manchuria was "sold" to the Japanese public, and those who disapproved or remained unconvinced were suppressed or imprisoned.

Works cited:
Young, Louise. Japan's Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism. University of California Press, 1998. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1png7c.
DuBois, Thomas David. "Local Religion and the Imperial Imaginary: The Development of Japanese Ethnography in Occupied Manchuria." The American Historical Review, vol. 111, no. 1, Feb. 2006, pp. 52-74. Oxford University Press, https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr.111.1.52.
Caffrey, Patrick J. "Transforming the Forests of a Counterfeit Nation: Japan's 'Manchu Nation' in Northeast China." Environmental History, vol. 18, no. 2, Apr. 2013, pp. 309-332. The University of Chicago Press, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24690424.
Tian, Mo. "The 'Baojia' System as Institutional Control in Manchukuo under Japanese Rule (1932-45)." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 59, no. 4, 2016, pp. 531-554. Brill, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26426388.
Saito, Shohei. "Crossing Perspectives in 'Manchukuo': Russian Eurasianism and Japanese Pan-Asianism." Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, Neue Folge, vol. 65, no. 4, 2017, pp. 597-623. Franz Steiner Verlag, https://www.jstor.org/stable/44646090.